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    • With regard to the multiple role

    2018-10-30

    With regard to the multiple role theories, it chemokine receptor antagonist seems that the results support the multiple role attachment hypothesis, rather than the multiple role burden hypothesis. We did not find a higher risk for poorer health in any of the full-time employed subgroups. Nevertheless, the three roles do not have the same value and strength of association with health. We found that employment is the most important social role, perhaps owing to the provision of economic independence to employed individuals in an affluent society like Germany, though it does not necessarily require a full-time commitment. Even parents who have the everyday responsibility of childcare seem to benefit from the advantages of paid employment (e.g., social integration, social support, own income, compensation to familial demands). However, parenthood and partnership can have diverse combinations involving different obligations for men and women that can lead to unequal distribution of family responsibilities (Artazcoz, Benach, Borrell, & Cortès, 2004). Work and family commitments often operate differently for men and women (Hewitt et al., 2006; Molarius, Granström, Lindén-Boström, & Elo, 2014), and combining roles does not have equal meaning for both genders. Thus, for men, combining a full-time job with partner and parental roles is easier than for women, especially if the partner is more engaged in the household and family arrangements. Because so many women, particularly mothers, work part time, it can be concluded that combining roles continues to be an important issue for women. Although many studies have addressed the association of different roles with health, a comparison of results across studies is difficult (Hewitt et al., 2006). One problem arises from the fact that the impact factors and outcome variables are measured in different ways in each study. Further, analysis methods also differ among studies. Our research approach of analyzing the interactions among three roles has an advantage over that of analyzing the number of social roles because it enables us to identify diverse groups occupying just one or two social roles. Another reason for disparities in the findings among different studies may involve different welfare systems (e.g., arrangements for parental leave, public childcare services, and tax laws), which probably have a strong influence on the balance between family and work efforts in everyday life (Roos, Burström et al., 2005). This applies to women in particular. Another limitation of our study is the measure of the three social roles. Non-employment is defined as inactivity in the labor market, regardless of whether one is searching for a job. This leads to a mixed group of homemakers and job seekers. With respect to partner status, we did not distinguish between persons who are single, living apart, divorced, or widowed. Furthermore, children living in the household of a divorced partner and children who have already left the parental home could not be taken into account. Finally, the partner\'s employment status could not be considered. However, the buffering effect of the partner\'s employment status on poorer SRH in women seems to be low (Floderus et al., 2009). Regardless of the number of roles held by men and women, the quality or characteristics of these multiple roles may also affect health (Hibbard & Pope, 1993; Plaisier et al., 2008). Moreover, partners\' participation in childcare and homework are other interesting aspects of the interactions among partnership, parenthood, and employment, and remain to be further studied.
    Conclusions Overall, our results provide evidence that the best strategy to promote the health of women and men is to enable their activity in the labor market. When drawing such conclusions, however, we must note that employment equality between women and men has not yet been achieved in Germany (Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth, 2014). Furthermore, women are engaged in part-time and fixed-term employment significantly more often and receive lower salaries than do men. Additionally, women still shoulder the vast majority of family-related responsibilities and thus experience difficulty reconciling work and family life (Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth, 2014). Because of the strong association between employment and health, the compatibility of work and family life should be improved for both women and men. In Germany, working in the low-wage sector and living in poverty are much more common among non-partnered parents than for partnered mothers and fathers (German Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, 2014); thus, Unidirectional replication seems especially important to provide this group with access to paid employment in combination with childcare services.